PMC

From left to right, the four torque profiles are for the shoulder internal/external, elevation/depression, ulnar/radial and elbow extension/flexion DoFs, respectively. The dynamic muscle torque (defined as muscle torque deprived of gravity torque, denoted by dMT), interaction torque (denoted by IT) and net torque (denoted by NT) are plotted.

A, the proportion of SA-I afferents scaled by torque magnitude during the three phases of stimulation. Two patterns of hatched bars correspond to afferents scaled by torque in the clockwise or anticlockwise directions, respectively. Black bars represent afferents that were scaled by torque in any direction, i.e. either clockwise, anticlockwise or both directions. B, torque effect in SA-I afferents during the loading phase shown in relation to the location of their receptive field centres. The three standardised fingers depict afferents scaled by torque in both directions, afferents scaled only in the clockwise and only in the anticlockwise directions, respectively. RFCs of afferents not scaled by torque are represented by open circles. Black arrows originating from the receptive field centres indicate the torque direction in which excitatory scaling of the afferent's response was significant as assessed by Spearman's rank correlation. White arrows indicate a significant suppressive effect (negative scaling) of torque on the afferent's response. The rotational centre of the applied torque (initial contact point) is indicated by the cross. Torque was applied on a 2.5 N background normal force.

Torque wrenches studied. a Ratchet, Institute Straumann Ag, Basel, Switzerland. b Manual Torque Wrench Prosthetic, Nobel Biocare, Zürich-Frughafen Switzerland. c Ex Torque Wrench, Kyocera Medical Corporation, Osaka, Japan. d GC Implant Re and Surgical Instrument Torque Wrench, Gc, Tokyo, Japan, e Torque Ratchet Wrench, Ktc, Kyoto, Japan. f Mono torque ratchet, Thommen, Grenchen, Switzerland. g Torque wrench, Nippon Piston Ring Co, Saitama, Japan. h Biofix Torque wrench, Shofu, Kyoto, Japan

Estimated torques. (a) Contour plot of inertial torque per unit length with respect to the CoM against normalized position along the body () and time. (b) Inertial body torque τ_body against time (black); torque on the body due to dynamic pressure, τ_dynp (green). (c) Contour plot of torque on the body per unit length due to dynamic pressure against and time. (d) Contour plot of torque on the body per unit length due to shear-force distribution against and time. (e) Inertial body torque τ_body against time (black); torque on the body torque due to shear-force distribution, τ_fric (blue) and acceleration reaction forces (τ_acc) × 0.2 (red). (f) Contour plot of torque per unit length on the body due to acceleration reaction forces against and time.